Original scientific paper

https://doi.org/10.2478/aiht-2025-76-3966

Mechanistic insights into the cytotoxic and apoptotic effects of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide and 1-butylpyridinium bromide on human cell lines

Lu Gao ; Jiangsu University School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Biofuels Institute, Zhenjiang, China
Charles Obinwanne Okoye ; Jiangsu University School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Biofuels Institute, Zhenjiang, China; Jiangsu University School of Life Sciences, Zhenjiang, China; University of Nigeria Faculty of Biological Sciences, Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Nsukka, Nigeria
Bonaventure Chidi Ezenwanne ; Jiangsu University School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Biofuels Institute, Zhenjiang, China; University of Nigeria Faculty of Biological Sciences, Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Nsukka, Nigeria
Jianxiong Jiang ; Jiangsu University School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Biofuels Institute, Zhenjiang, China
Guizhu Wu ; Jiangsu University School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Institute of Environment and Ecology, Zhenjiang, China
Lin Yu ; Tianjin Medical University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Medical University Key Laboratory of the Educational Ministry of China, Tianjin, China
Daolin Du ; Jiangsu University School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Institute of Environment and Ecology, Zhenjiang, China; Jiangsu University Jingjiang College, Zhenjiang, China
Yonglai Xue ; Jiangsu University School of Environment and Safety Engineering, Institute of Environment and Ecology, Zhenjiang, China *

* Corresponding author.

Abstract

Ionic liquids (ILs) are a novel class of salts with growing industrial applications due to their tunable physicochemical properties. However, their popularity has given rise to concerns about their cytotoxic potential. This study investigates the cytotoxic, apoptotic, and cell cycle effects of two ILs, namely 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide ([Bmim]Br) and 1-butylpyridinium bromide ([Bpy]Br), on three human cell lines: HeLa (cervical cancer), MCF-7 (breast cancer), and HEK293T (human embryonic kidney). Using real-time cell analysis (RTCA), we determined that the half-maximal inhibition concentrations (IC50) for [Bmim]Br were 841.86 μmol/L in MCF-7, 538.38 μmol/L in HeLa, and 654.78 μmol/L in HEK293T cells. Respective [Bpy]Br IC50 values were 341.74 μmol/L, 333.27 μmol/L, and 328.98 μmol/L. Flow cytometry revealed that both ILs induced dose-dependent apoptosis and that [Bpy]Br showed stronger pro-apoptotic effects. At 1000 μmol/L, [Bpy]Br reduced live cell population to 33.86 % in MCF-7 and to 38.32 % in HeLa cells. Both ILs induced the G0/G1 phase arrest and significantly suppressed the expression of cyclin D1, CDK2, and CDK4 at both mRNA and protein levels. MTT and Transwell assays further confirmed inhibited cell proliferation and migration, particularly in MCF-7 and HeLa cells. These findings demonstrate that [Bmim]Br and [Bpy]Br inhibit cell growth by triggering apoptosis and by interfering with cell cycle progression. Stronger effects observed with [Bpy]Br suggest its therapeutic potential, but given the toxicity of both ILs in non-cancerous HEK293T cells, further research is necessary to evaluate their biosafety and long-term effects.

Keywords

anti-proliferative effects; apoptosis; cell cycle arrest; cytotoxicity; HeLa cells; HEK293T cells; ionic liquids; MCF-7 cells

Hrčak ID:

335402

URI

https://hrcak.srce.hr/335402

Publication date:

15.9.2025.

Article data in other languages: croatian

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